The Friedmann equation, derived from general relativity, governs the expansion of spacetime. However, it was found incompatible with observations, notably the universe’s accelerating expansion.

Our most successful cosmological model, Lambda Cold Dark Matter (ΛCDM), relies on the tenets set forth in the Cosmological Principle which states that at large scales, the universe is homogeneous and isotropic.

The cosmic web is among the largest structures in the universe, spanning a network of nodes interconnected by filaments.