Shortly after the Big Bang, the early universe was an ultra-hot and dense soup of fundamental particles, including charged electrons and photons. In this environment, photons constantly bounced off the free electrons.

White dwarfs (WDs) represent the final evolutionary stage of low- and medium-mass stars, the inert remnants of red giant cores.

Our most successful cosmological model, Lambda Cold Dark Matter (ΛCDM), relies on the tenets set forth in the Cosmological Principle which states that at large scales, the universe is homogeneous and isotropic.

General relativity describes spacetime as a smooth, continuous fabric that dynamically curves in response to mass and energy. While widely accepted, it remains incomplete due to the presence of singularities.

Relative to solar-system timescales, Saturn’s rings are believed to be quite young, estimated to be only 100–400 million years old. This estimate is based on the remarkable purity of the material composing the rings.

When observing our closest neighbouring stars, astronomers quickly realised that our Sun stands out from its peers of similar age, possessing a notably greater metallicity.

Beyond the outskirts of the Solar System lies the cold classical belt (CCB), a stable region within the Kuiper Belt.

The final parsec problem is an astronomical puzzle involving the dynamical evolution of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) at the centres of most galaxies.

In cosmology, the prevailing model that describes the universe is the Lambda Cold Dark Matter (ΛCDM) model.

In late 2018, the European Space Agency's Mars Express orbiter gathered exciting radar data suggesting the presence of liquid water beneath Mars' south polar ice cap.

Since its launch in late 2021, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has revolutionized our view of the universe, giving us unprecedented details of distant galaxies and stars.

So-called ‘Super Earths’ are described as planets with masses that exceed that of the Earth’s, but remain lighter than the ice giants in our system.